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Invitation to a Journey Session Six: Taking the Middle Road
I. The Middle way (via media) in Anglicanism
Between Protestantism and Roman Catholicism (Western theological traditions)
Between Protestantism. Roman Catholicism, and early Christianity (first 4 centuries of the Christian Church)
Early Anglican theologians did not mediate directly between contemporary Protestantism and Catholicism; rather, they called for a recovery of the faith and practice of the first four centuries of the Christian Church. Because this earlier tradition antedated later divisions, they believed it would provide a more authentic mediating position. (Randy Maddox, "John Wesley and Eastern Orthodoxy: Influences, Convergences, and Differences." Asbury Theological Journal 45:2 (1990), p. 30)
Wesley inherited the influence of these early Anglican theologians, and under the additional influence of his father, developed a great appreciation for the early Greek theologians of the first four centuries. When Wesley lists theologians he recommends for study, the list is weighted heavily in favor of Greek theologians over the Latin (Western) fathers. Of the former, Wesley recommends those such as Basil, Chrysostom, Clement of Alexandria, Clement of Rome, Ephraem Syrus, Ignatius, Iranaeus. Justyn Martyr, Origen, Polycarp, and (Pseudo) Macarius. In the latter category, Wesley lists such persons as Augustine, Cyprian, and Tertullian. Comparatively, the Greek fathers receive far more attention in Wesley.
Ways in which Wesley may have been influenced by the Greek Fathers:
Wesley's notion of the Christian life as "faith filled with the energy of love" is patterned after Chrysostom;
Wesley's preaching balances grace and demand in ways similar to that of Chrysostom;
Wesley's tract, "The Character of a Methodist," exhibits close parallels to Clement of Alexandria's seventh book of his Stromateis;
Wesley's view of sin in believers and Christian perfection is strikingly similar to Macarius;
Striking parallels occur between Wesley and Gregory of Nyssi on Christian perfection.
[Cf. K. Steve McCormick, "Theosis in Chrysostom and Wesley: An Eastern Paradigm on Faith and Love." Wesleyan Theological Journal 26:1 (1991): 38-103, Troy W. Martin, "John Wesley's Exegetical Orientation: East or West?" WTJ 26:1 (1991): 104-138; Howard Synder, "John Wesley and Macarius the Egyptian." Asbury Theological Journal 45:2 (1990): 55-59]
Ironically, despite Wesley's sympathies with early Greek theologians, he had very little contact with contemporaneous Eastern Orthodox theologians of his day. As a result, Wesley typically followed most of Western Protestantism in offering generally negative comments concerning Eastern Orthodox life and thought.
II. Wesley and Eastern Orthodoxy: Similarities and Parallels
Theology in General
Nature of theology as practical per se versus theology as theoretical science
Sources of theology:
Scripture
Definitions of the Ecumenical Councils
Liturgical texts
Writings of the Church Fathers
Of note to Western theologians in this list is 'C', because Western theologians have historical, emphasized the Ecumenical Councils and endorsed various theologians more than liturgies, because the former are more easily appealed to as legally binding than the latter. Regarding this, however, Maddox notes:
In this area, Anglicanism has differed in a key way from the West. From the beginning, it viewed the doctrinal authority of the Book of Common Prayer as equal to, if not higher than, its Articles of Religion. And Wesley embraced this belief in the normative value of the liturgy. ("John Wesley and Eastern Orthodoxy," p. 33; Cf. Also J. Brian Selleck, "The Book of Common Prayer in the Theology of John Wesley," Drew Univ. Ph.,D. Thesis, 1983)
For Eastern Orthodox theologians, liturgy is the most authentic form of theological expression. The model theologian is the one who constructs or interprets liturgy. Wesley resonates with this, providing his revival movement with prayer books, liturgies, collections of hymns, etc., which were theologically edited and crafted. Wesley also shares the concerns of Eastern theologians to explicitly link theological learning (doctrine) with life, and to involve the laity more in theological education,
Thus, Wesley's understanding of the sources of theology was closer to Orthodoxy than that of Western theological traditions, with two key exceptions:
Wesley joined the West in affirming more explicitly a role for reason and experience in theological activity;
Wesley restricted the authority of tradition to the first 4 centuries of the Christian Church in a way that Orthodoxy would not accept.
Specific Theological Emphases/Similarilities
Anthropology,: Human nature and the human problem.
Western theology: Humans originally created in a perfect state (i.e., the epitome of all that God wanted them to be). God's will was for humans to retain this perfection. Being created in the image of God meant the capacity for self-determination. Adam/Eve used this capacity to turn from God. The result: The Fall, with its consequences:
loss of self-determination (we are free now only to sin)
inheritance of the guilt of this "original" sin by all human posterity
Since this fallen condition is universal, and emphasized the guilt and powerlessness of human beings apart from divine grace, it can be said to be a "Fall centered" anthropology.
Eastern theology: Eastern theologians affirm that humans were originally created innocent, but not the perfect embodiment of all that God wanted them to be. Human beings were created with a dynamic nature destined to progress in communion with God. Eastern theologians distinguish between the image of God and the likeness of God:
Image of God: potential for life in God
Likeness of God: realization of the potential for life in God (made possible by deification, or participation in the divine life. Such participation is neither inevitable nor automatic)
The Fall: Humans used their freedom to turn away from God and to compete with God rather than participating in the divine gifts. (Agree with West)
Effects: Humans don't inherit the guilt of the Fall automatically; we become guilty when we imitate Adam's sin (unlike the West);
The Primary result of the Fall (unlike the West) was the introduction of death and corruption into human life. While death and corruption have weakened us such that we can no longer hope to attain the perfect likeness of God, it does not deprive humans of all grace or of the responsibility of responding to God's offer of restored communion in Christ. Eastern theologians thus emphasize the cooperation of divine-human interactions even after the Fall. These concerns tend to produce a "Creation centered" anthropology.
Wesley's middle way:
Wesley assumed the view of humanity as originally created completely perfect (West); yet, he saw human beings "in process" and believed that God does not implant holiness in us instantaneously (East). He even suggested that growth in grace would continue through eternity (cf. A Plain Account of Christian Perfection and Jackson's edition of Wesley's Works, 11:426).
In addition, Wesley's notion of the "image of God" strongly resembles the Eastern distinction between the "image" of God and the "likeness" of God. Wesley spoke of the "natural" image of God as our capacity for knowing, loving, and obeying God (similar to the Eastern notion of the "image" of God); and he also spoke of the "moral" image as the righteousness and true holiness exhibited in those who love and obey God (like the Eastern notion of the "likeness"
of God).The Effects of The Fall:
Wesley affirmed that all human posterity inherits the guilt of Adam's sin (West); but Wesley's primary concern was how the Fall brought corruption into human life (East); and he also affirmed that the guilt of original sin was cancelled by prevenient grace as a benefit of the Atonement. Prevenient grace removes inherited guilt and re-empowers the human capacity to respond freely to God's offer of forgiving/transforming grace.
Summarizing Wesley's view of human nature and the human problem, Maddox notes:
Wesley's distinctive weaving of the doctrines of Original Sin and Prevenient Grace allowed Wesley to emphasize Original Sin as strongly as anyone in the West, yet hold to an overall picture of the human condition much like that of Eastern Orthodoxy. ("John Wesley and Eastern Orthodoxy," p. 35)
Christology: The Person of Christ
Western: Focal truths about Christ center on the Atonement and the crucified Christ, given the fact of the guilt of our sin and our inability to atone for ourselves. Christ's death is seen as the central and defining part of his mission, and a serious attempt is made to safeguard the distinctiveness of his two natures.
Eastern: Focal truths about Christ center on the Incarnation and the resurrected/ascended Christ, corresponding to the central conviction that the essential human need is to develop the likeness of God in our lives, which we cannot do without divine grace. The Incarnation is the act whereby "God became like us" so that we might become like God. The Fall necessitated Christ's death, but not because of the juridical need to deal with guilt; rather, it was necessary for Christ to fully identify with human nature in order to reclaim it and make it capable of deification.
Wesley's middle way: Wesley understands the Atonement as the satisfaction of God's justice (West); yet, the emphasis on Christ becoming human in order for humans to be restored to God-likeness is clearly present (East), and even fused with the previous understanding. While Christ's death is a central motif in Wesley, he nonetheless gave more treatment to the resurrected Christ than was typical of eighteenth century theology. In addition,Wesley's emphasis on the divine nature of Christ comes close to absorbing the human nature at points (a criticism often levelled at Eastern Orthodox theology).
Pneumatology: The Holy Spirit and Grace
Western: [Protestants] have viewed grace primarily as God's extrinsic act of forgiveness. Any notion of power for obedient living is typically understood as a "supernatural" power that irresistibly reforms human nature, [Catholics] have emphasized grace bestowing power on sinful humanity to recover God-likeness and thereby God's acceptance. For both Protestants and Catholics, this power is a product of the Holy Spirit and not the Holy Spirit per se. It is referred to as "created" grace. (Cf. Maddox, "John Wesley and Eastern Orthodoxy," p. 37)
Eastern: Eastern theologians view grace as "uncreated," that is, the actual (though not exhaustive) presence of the Holy Spirit rejuvenating human life. As such, grace does not act irresistibly or extrinsic of our cooperation.
Wesley's middle way: Wesley emphasized grace as pardon (West), but he strongly emphasized the need for human cooperation in response to God's divine grace (East); grace was connected (perhaps equated!) With the transforming power of the Holy Spirit in the lives of human beings; grace was participation in the divine life as well as pardon.
The Trinity
Western: Western theology has emphasized the unity of the persons of the Godhead, at times to the point of Unitarianism or Sabellianism. The concern has been to prevent the Holy Spirit from becoming "overly independent" of Christ.
Eastern: Eastern theologians have emphasized the distinctiveness of the persons of The Godhead. Their concern his been not to subordinate the Spirit from Christ.
The tension between the two finds expression in the West's addition of the filioque (lit. "And the Son") to the Nicene Creed in reference to the Holy Spirit.
Wesley's middle way: Wesley doesn't discuss the filioque; but he ascribes to the Western view in retaining Article #4 of the Anglican Articles of Religion in his Methodist articles. On the other hand, Wesley displays a keen interest in the distinct operations of the persons of the Godhead, an interest which is highly Eastern.
Salvation
Western: Western theologians focus on legal or juridical images for salvation which relate strongly to forgiveness and guilt. As a result, Justification assumes primary significance. Sanctification is always seen within the context of Justification.
Eastern: Eastern theology focuses on healing the corruption of the human nature resulting from sin, and participation in the divine life through cooperation with divine grace. Thus, the central images are therapeutic. As a result, Sanctification assumes primary significance.
While these two concerns are not mutually exclusive, the emphases are determinative. Maddox observes:
The West's focus on forgiveness results in the doctrine of justification assuming primary significance. This is not to say that Western traditions totally ignore growth in Christlikenes (sanctification), only that such growth is expected or appealed to within the context of justification. A good example is the traditional Catholic emphasis on infused grace. It may appear to overthrow the doctrine of justification. However, its purpose was to explain how a just God could declare sinners justified. Thus, the major distinctions in Western soteriology are not over the centrality of the issue of justification, but over how best to understand the conditions, process and implications of justification.
... The East's answer to the question of how God could accept fallen humanity is simple -- by condescending love. They have not felt it necessary to elaborate this point. Rather, they have dealt with the question of how fallen humanity can recover their spiritual health and the likeness of God. Their answer has centered on the need for responsible human participation in the divine life, through the means that God has graciously provided... Eastern theologians insist that the question of meriting God's acceptance is not at issue. They are simply recognizing that participation in God's freely bestowed grace empowers humans for responsible cooperation. ("John Wesley and Eastern Orthodoxy," p. 38)
Wesley's middle way: After 1738, Wesley consistently advocated justification by faith, often appealing to the Anglican standards of doctrine. On the other hand, therapeutic metaphors and emphases are extremely prevalent in his works, arguably outweighing legal and forensic ones. (Cf. Wesley's sermons. "The One Thing Needful," WJW. 4:355; "The Trouble and Rest of Good Men," WJW, 3:531; "The Wilderness State," WJW, 2:202-21; "The Circumcision of the Heart," WJW, 1:402; "The Love of God," WJW, 4:338; "Self Denial," PVJIF, 2:243; "The Way to the Kingdom," WJW, 1:117ff; "On Friendship With the World," and "In What Sense we are to Leave the World," WJW, 3:134-35; "On the Education of Children," WJW, 3:349; "The Doctrine of Original Sin According to Scripture, Reason, and Experience," [Jackson's Work's, 9:194]; "Original Sin," WJW, 2:185). Indeed, his characteristic definition of salvation is remarkably Eastern:
By salvation, I mean, not barely (according to the vulgar notion) deliverance from hell, or going to heaven, but a present deliverance from sin, a restoration of the soul to its primitive health, its original purity; a recovery of the divine nature; the renewal of our souls after the image of God in righteousness and true holiness, in justice, mercy, and truth. ("A Farther Appeal to Men of Reason and Religion," Bicentennial edition of Wesley's Works, Part 1, Par. 1.3, 11:106)
Wesley's dominant therapeutic interest led him ultimately to focus his doctrine of salvation more on sanctification than on justificition. Yet, justification by faith was the essential foundation and starting point to a life of renewal in God's image and transformation in holiness.
Wesley's view of sanctification parallels closely the Eastern doctrine of deification, or the participation (through grace) in the divine life. Such participation renews humanity and transfigures persons into the image of Christ. The doctrine of deification does not imply a pantheistic identification between God and humanity, and Wesley's doctrine of sanctification does not teach that human beings faultlessly embody the perfection of God in this life. Rather, both express a confidence (an optimism of grace!) that God's grace can progressively deliver us from the power of sin in this life. Both Wesley and Eastern theologians insist that this is no mere legal conformity to God's law. It is the renewal of the heart in love -- love for God and others. And it is available for all Christians, not just monastics or the spiritually elite.
Finally, Maddox observes:
Both Orthodoxy and Wesley construe Christian life as a continuum of stages, from novice to the mature (teleioi). Not only can Christians experience a beginning transformation in this life, they can hope to attain a perfect expression of Christlikeness. However, this is a distinctly Greek "perfection" (teleios). While available to all, it is not quickly or easily attained ... As such, while clearly of affirming its possible attainment, a primary concern is to insure that neither despair over lack of attainment nor presumption due to believed attainment will undercut the continual responsibility for further growth. ("John Wesley and Eastern Orthodoxy," p. 40)
The Sacraments
The Eucharist. Eastern theologians often refer to the process of deification as being mediated sacramentally. Perhaps this partially explains Wesley's strong emphasis on the importance of the Eucharist as a means of grace in the renewal of sin-diseased human nature. While the Anglican tradition was among the more sacramental of the Western traditions, Wesley's stress on the Eucharist was remarkable.
Wesley agreed that the faithful communicant actually received grace through the Eucharist, in tandem with some Western traditions. However, in good Eastern fashion, he rejected attempts to explain this reality. Instead, he stressed the role of the Holy Spirit, and retrieved the Eastern practice of an invocation of the Spirit (i.e., epiclesis) upon the elements and the congregation.
Baptism. The Eastern understanding of baptism differs significantly from the West. While the East practiced infant baptism, they rejected the Western notion that its purpose was the forgiveness of inherited guilt. Rather, they stressed that infant baptism restores a power of [spiritual] life to the baptized, who then commences growth in Christlikeness. It does not immediately remove all corruption, but restores the participation in God's grace through which progressive deliverance can come. Like all grace, the grace of baptism is cooperant. As such, baptism alone is not a guarantee of salvation. (Cf. Maddox. "John Wesley and Eastern Orthodoxy," p. 41)
Wesley's understanding of baptism is complex and controversial. Early on, he strongly defended infant baptism. Over time, he became increasingly uncomfortable with the popular presumption that one's baptism as an infant absolved all future guilt. In addition, his mature conviction that prevenient grace removes the guilt of original sin undercut the traditional Western rationale for infant baptism. As such, in his later writing and editing, he appears to abandon the idea that infant baptism is concerned with the forgiveness of sins. He does not surrender, however, the conviction that baptism conveys spiritual vitality to the infant; nor the belief that this grace can be "sinned away." (Maddox, "John Wesley and Eastern Orthodoxy," p. 41)
Even though Wesley's views on baptism are complex, they are striking in, their similarities to Eastern understandings of baptism. Additionally, Wesley eventually rejected the Anglican rite of Confirmation, and in so doing approximated the Eastern pattern of initiation (whether intentional or not).
SUMMARY
In typical Anglican fashion, the mediating of Protestant and Catholic traditions in the West is not surprising when looking at Wesley. Perhaps less well known is the fact that Wesley's appreciation of early Greek theologians resulted in his appropriation of several distinctive Eastern Orthodox theological convictions. The presence of these convictions has the potential to bring great clarity to many of Wesley's theological concerns, especially his abiding concern for sanctification, the role of the liturgy, and the role of the sacraments in the Christian's life.
For Further Reading:
Randy Maddox. "John Wesley and Eastern Orthodoxy: Influences, Convergences, and Differences." Asbury Theological Journal 45:2 (1990): 29-53.
Howard Snyder. "John Wesley and Macarius the Egyptian." Asbury Theological Journal 45:2 (1990): 55-59.
J. Patout Burns. "The Economy of Salvation: Two Patristic Views." Theological Studies 37:4 (Dec. 1976) 598-617.
Troy W. Martin. "John Wesley's Exegetical Orientation: East or West?" Wesleyan Theological Journal 26:1 (1991): 104-138.
K. Steve McCormick. "Theosis in Chrysostom and Wesley: An Eastern Paradigm on Faith and Love." Wesleyan Theological Journal 26:1 (1991): 138-103.
Panagiotos K. Chrestou. Partakers of God. Brookline, MA: Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 1984.
Alkiviadis Cativas. "Man as Icon of God: An Orthodox Homily," in God's Living Word: Orthodox And Evangelical Essays on Preaching, ed. Theodore C. Stylianopolous. Brookline, MA: Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 1983.
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